THE CRISIS AROUND GREENLAND AND THE TEST FOR NATO AND THE EUROPEAN UNION: LEGAL LIMITS OF TERRITORIAL CLAIMS AND TOOLS AGAINST COERCION
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.68302/std2026.vol1.87Keywords:
Arctic, European Union, International Law, NATOAbstract
The study analyzes the geopolitical crisis surrounding Greenland as a fundamental test of the sustainability of the international legal order and the institutional capacity of NATO and the European Union (EU). The focus is on the conceptual clash between the outdated model of “territory purchase” and the modern liberal legalism affirming the right to self-determination of the Greenlandic people. The methodology includes a legal and normative analysis of the 2009 Act on Greenland Self-Government, a comparative study of the evolution of the Monroe Doctrine, and an analysis of cases of geoeconomic coercion in the Arctic. The results of the study identify critical risks arising from the increased Russian-Chinese strategic cooperation and the vulnerability of critical infrastructure to foreign investment. The main conclusions reject the treatment of territory as a commodity and emphasize that sovereignty is inextricably linked to the will of the population in Nuuk. The article recommends, on the one hand, institutionalizing NATO's role by strengthening its European pillar and eliminating the “alliance dilemma” by conducting a specialized Arctic mission, and on the other hand, activating the EU's defense mechanisms against economic coercion and strictly adhering to the democratic procedures for changing the status, as set out in the 2009 Act. The study establishes Greenland as an active security entity, whose defense is a litmus test for the ability of Western allies to uphold the principle of sovereign equality and to implement an innovative approach in a “zero to one” perspective.
Downloads
References
[1] U.S. Department of State, “Milestones: The Monroe Doctrine, 1823,” history.state.gov. [Online]. Available: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/monroe. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[2] National Archives, “Monroe Doctrine (1823),” May 10, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/monroe-doctrine. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[3] P. Petkov, “The USA and Bulgaria, 1917–1918,” Yearbook of Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” – Faculty of History (orig. in Bulgarian: „Годишник на Софийския университет „Св. Климент Охридски“ – Исторически факултет“), vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 61–107, 1982, doi: 10.60053/GSU.IF.1.73.61-107. [Online]. Available: https://annual.uni-sofia.bg/index.php/hist/article/view/1284. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[4] P. Petkov, “The United States and the First World War: The Peace Program of President Woodrow Wilson,” Yearbook of Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” – Faculty of History (orig. in Bulgarian: „Годишник на Софийския университет „Св. Климент Охридски“ – Исторически факултет“), vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 115–184, Nov. 2000, doi: 10.60053/GSU.IF.1.90.115-184. [Online]. Available: https://annual.uni-sofia.bg/index.php/hist/article/view/1224. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[5] J. Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America. New York, NY, USA: Hill and Wang, 2011. [Online]. Available: https://books.google.co.ve/books?id=u4GVKXN8SWYC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[6] O. Godeanu-Kenworthy, “American Attempts at Northern Expansion in the 19th Century,” Nordics.info, Mar. 31, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://nordics.info/nnl/show/artikel/american-attempts-at-northern-expansion-in-the-19th-century. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[7] B. Dyer, “Robert J. Walker on Acquiring Greenland and Iceland,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 263–266, Sep. 1940, https://doi.org/10.2307/1896815. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[8] U.S. Department of State, A Report on the Resources of Iceland and Greenland, B. M. Peirce, Comp. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1868. [Online]. Available: https://books.google.bg/books?id=U9lIAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=bg#v=onepage&q&f=false. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[9] H. A. Conley, M. Melino, N. Tsafos, and I. Williams, America’s Arctic Moment: Great Power Competition in the Arctic to 2050. Washington, DC, USA: Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.csis.org/analysis/americas-arctic-moment-great-power-competition-arctic-2050. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[10] U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, “Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Secretary of State: Over-all examination of U.S. requirements for military bases and rights” (Doc. 580, Nov. 7, 1945), in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, General; The United Nations, vol. 1, R. R. Goodwin, N. H. Petersen, M. W. Kranz, and W. Slany, Eds. Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972, pp. 1113–1117. [Online]. Available: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v01/d580. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[11] U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, “Conversation with Danish Foreign Minister Gustav Rasmussen emphasizing the vital importance of Greenland” (Telegram 811.24559B/1–247), Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1947, vol. III, Doc. 414, 1947. [Online]. Available: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1947v03/d414. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[12] M. Weller, “Who owns Greenland?,” Chatham House, Jan. 9, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2026/01/who-owns-greenland. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[13] N. Petersen, “Negotiating the 1951 Greenland Defense Agreement: Theoretical and empirical aspects,” Scandinavian Political Studies, vol. 21, no. 1, 1998. [Online]. Available: https://tidsskrift.dk/scandinavian_political_studies/article/view/32916. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[14] Yale Law School, Avalon Project, “Defense of Greenland: Agreement between the United States and the Kingdom of Denmark,” Apr. 27, 1951. [Online]. Available: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/den001.asp. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[15] P. Georgiev, “The Battle for the North Pole: The New Arctic Geopolitics,” Geopolitika (orig. in Bulgarian: „Битката за Северния полюс: новата арктическа геополитика“), Apr. 17, 2014. [Online]. Available: https://geopolitica.eu/spisanie-geopolitika/129-2014/broi-1-2014/2005-bitkata-za-severniya-polyus-novata-arkticheska-geopolitika. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[16] N. Stefanov, “The Military Dimensions of the New Battle for the Arctic,” Geopolitika (orig. in Bulgarian: „Военните измерения на новата битка за Арктика“), Jun. 28, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://geopolitica.eu/2020/183-broy-3-2020/3203-voennite-izmereniya-na-novata-bitka-za-arktika. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[17] I. Sotirov, “Military-strategic conditions of stability in international relations,” in 110 Years of Tradition, Quality, Prestige: Proceedings of the Annual Scientific Conference – Part I (Apr. 12–13, 2022, Sofia, Bulgaria) (orig. in Bulgarian: „Военностратегически условия на стабилността в международните отношения,“ в „110 години традиция, качество, престиж: Сборник доклади от годишна научна конференция – Част I“), pp. 46–54. Sofia, Bulgaria: G. S. Rakovski National Defence College, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://rndc.bg/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/1-2-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F-06-10-2022-300.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[18] United States Space Force, “Thule Air Base Gets New Name,” Apr. 6, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.spaceforce.mil/news/article/3355840/thule-air-base-gets-new-name/. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[19] J. Hursch, “Challenging our conventional thinking in the Arctic,” Journal of Arctic and Climate Security Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://tedstevensarcticcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/JACSS-Vol-1.-No.-1-20230906_revised_20230911_1936AKDT.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[20] The White House, National Strategy for the Arctic Region. 2022. [Online]. Available: https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/National-Strategy-for-the-Arctic-Region.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[21] M. Lanteigne, “Greenland’s Airport Saga: Enter the US?,” Over the Circle, Sep. 18, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://overthecircle.com/2018/09/18/greenlands-airport-saga-enter-the-us/. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[22] M. Lanteigne and M. Shi, “‘No Sale’: How Talk of a US Purchase of Greenland Reflected Arctic Anxieties,” Over the Circle, Sep. 17, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://overthecircle.com/2019/09/17/no-sale-how-talk-of-a-us-purchase-of-greenland-reflected-arctic-anxieties/. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[23] C. Edwards, “The ‘Donroe Doctrine’ reaches the Arctic,” International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), Jan. 12, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/online-analysis/2026/01/the-donroe-doctrine-reaches-the-arctic/. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[24] In classical geopolitics (realism), Greenland is seen as an “object” – a territory that can be bought, sold or used for military purposes because a stronger state has an interest in doing so (so-called Realpolitik). Realpolitik does not necessarily deny law or values, but views them as secondary interests and strong realities (especially in times of crisis). Liberal legalism rejects this. It argues that they are not free to make any demands now because they are constrained by international treaties and legal norms. According to this logic, even the richest country (the USA) cannot simply “buy” an island because there are legal procedures and rights of the population that are above market logic.
[25] International Law Commission, “Fourth report on succession of States in respect of matters other than treaties,” U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/247, 1971. [Online]. Available: https://legal.un.org/ilc/documentation/english/a_cn4_247.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[26] United States of America and the French Republic, “Treaty between the United States of America and the French Republic (Louisiana Purchase Treaty),” Apr. 30, 1803. [Online]. Available: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/louis1.asp. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[27] United States of America and Russia, “Treaty concerning the Cession of the Russian Possessions in North America (Alaska Treaty of Cession),” Mar. 30, 1867. [Online]. Available: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-15/pdf/STATUTE-15-Pg539.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[28] United Nations, Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Justice, 1945. [Online]. Available: https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/ctc/uncharter.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[29] OHCHR, “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR),” 1966. [Online]. Available: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/internationalcovenant-civil-and-political-rights. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[30] OHCHR, “International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR),” 1966. [Online]. Available: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[31] Denmark (Statsministeriet), “Greenland.” [Online]. Available: https://english.stm.dk/the-primeministers-office/the-unity-of-the-realm/greenland/. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[32] K. Göcke, “The 2008 referendum on Greenland’s autonomy and independence: Implications for the future of Greenland’s international legal status,” Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 103–122, 2009. [Online]. Available: https://www.zaoerv.de/69_2009/69_2009_1_a_103_122.pdf. [Accessed: Mar. 2, 2026].
[33] Denmark (Statsministeriet), “Act No. 473 of 12 June 2009 on Greenland Self-Government (English translation),” 2009. [Online]. Available: https://english.stm.dk/media/4vgewyoh/gl-selvstyrelov-uk.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[34] Statsministeriet, “Notifikation af 7. oktober 2009 til FN’s generalsekretær om selvstyreloven [Notification of 7 October 2009 to the UN Secretary-General concerning the Self-Government Act],” Oct. 7, 2009. [Online]. Available: https://www.stm.dk/media/zbalffp3/10-notifikation-af-7-oktober-2009-til-fn-s-generalsekretaer-om-selvstyreloven.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 2, 2026].
[35] Denmark (Statsministeriet), “The Unity of the Realm.” [Online]. Available: https://english.stm.dk/the-prime-ministers-office/the-unity-of-the-realm/. [Accessed: Feb. 3, 2026].
[36] UN General Assembly, “Resolution 849 (IX): Cessation of the transmission of information under Article 73 e of the Charter in respect of Greenland,” 1954. [Online]. Available: https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1954/en/85064. [Accessed: Feb. 4, 2026].
[37] M. Paul, “Arctic Repercussions of Russia’s Invasion,” SWP Comment, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2021C10/. [Accessed: Feb. 4, 2026].
[38] M. Breum, “How a dispute over China and Greenland’s airports worked its way toward a solution,” Arctic Today, Jun. 30, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.arctictoday.com/dispute-china-greenlands-airports-worked-way-toward-solution/. [Accessed: Feb. 4, 2026].
[39] M. Schwartz and G. Baskaran, “Greenland, Rare Earths, and Arctic Security,” Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Jan. 8, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.csis.org/analysis/greenland-rare-earths-and-arctic-security. [Accessed: Feb. 4, 2026].
[40] H. A. Conley and M. Melino, America’s Arctic Moment: Great Power Competition in the Arctic to 2050. Washington, DC, USA: Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2020. [Online]. Available: https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/Conley_ArcticMoment_layout_WEB%20FINAL.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 5, 2026].
[41] The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, “China’s Arctic Policy,” White Paper, Jan. 2018. [Online]. Available: https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2018/01/26/content_281476026660336.htm. [Accessed: Apr. 30, 2026].
[42] Y. Hong, “China’s Arctic policy on the basis of international law: Identification, goals, principles and positions,” Marine Policy, vol. 100, pp. 265–276, Feb. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.027. [Online]. Available: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X18301982. [Accessed: Apr. 30, 2026].
[43] U.S. Department of Defense, 2024 Arctic Strategy, Jun. 21, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://media.defense.gov/2024/Jul/22/2003507411/-1/-1/0/DOD-ARCTIC-STRATEGY-2024.PDF. [Accessed: Feb. 5, 2026].
[44] Danish Ministry of Defence, “Agreement on Arctic capabilities (Unofficial translation),” Feb. 11, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.fmn.dk/globalassets/fmn/dokumenter/nyheder/2021/-agreement-on-arctic-capabilities-uk-.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 5, 2026].
[45] Danish Ministry of Defence, “Fact sheet: Second Agreement on the Arctic and North Atlantic (Under the 2024–2033 Defence Agreement),” Oct. 10, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.fmn.dk/globalassets/fmn/dokumenter/2025/-publikation-om-delaftale-2-om-arktis-og-nordatlanten-eng-.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 5, 2026].
[46] M. Paul, “Arctic repercussions of Russia’s invasion: Council on pause, research on ice and Russia frozen out,” Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP), SWP Comment no. 39/2022, Jun. 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/comments/2022C39_ArcticAndRussiasInvasion.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 6, 2026].
[47] P. Thiel and B. Masters, Zero to One: Notes on Startups, or How to Build the Future. London, U.K.: Virgin Books, 2014.
[48] G. Leclerc, Greenland: Caught in the Arctic Geopolitical Contest, European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS), Members’ Research Service, Briefing PE 769.527, Oct. 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2025/769527/EPRS_BRI(2025)769527_EN.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[49] International Energy Agency, Energy and AI. Paris, France: IEA, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-and-ai. [Accessed: May 4, 2026].
[50] A. Jacobsen and T. Stonestreet, “Wary of U.S. investors, Greenland lawmakers push to pass foreign investment screening law,” Reuters, Feb. 26, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wary-us-investors-greenland-lawmakers-push-pass-foreign-investment-screening-law-2026-02-26/. [Accessed: May 4, 2026].
[51] T. Marshall, Prisoners of Geography (Bulgarian ed.: Пленници на географията). Sofia, Bulgaria: Knigomania, 2023.
[52] F. Bahgat and S. D. Inayatullah, “NATO could end if US takes over Greenland – Danish PM,” Deutsche Welle, Jan. 6, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.dw.com/en/nato-could-end-if-us-takes-over-greenland-danish-pm/a-75401270. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[53] A. J. McKee and The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Broken windows theory,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica. [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/topic/broken-windows-theory. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[54] X. Heqian, “In Depth: Finland’s Stubb warns world order at a crossroads,” Global Neighbours, Feb. 2, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.globalneighbours.org/in-depth-finlands-stubb-warns-world-order-at-a-crossroads/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[55] P. Kirby, “European military personnel arrive in Greenland as Trump says US needs island,” BBC News, Jan. 15, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd0ydjvxpejo. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[56] NATO, “NATO will defend Allied interests in the Arctic says Chair of NATO Military Committee,” Oct. 21, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.nato.int/en/news-and-events/articles/news/2024/10/21/nato-will-defend-allied-interests-in-the-arctic-says-chair-of-nato-military-committee. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[57] G. H. Snyder, Alliance Politics. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell University Press, 1997.
[58] A. Stubb and M. Leonard, “How can we cooperate in a more contested world? Rebalancing the New World Order,” World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2026, Jan. 22, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.weforum.org/meetings/world-economic-forum-annual-meeting-2026/sessions/rebalancing-the-new-world-order/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[59] Norwegian Government, “Joint statement by the foreign ministers of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden on 6 January 2026,” Jan. 6, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.regjeringen.no/en/whats-new/joint-statement-by-the-foreign-ministers-of-denmark-finland-iceland-norway-and-sweden-on-6-january-2026/id3145218/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[60] World Economic Forum, “Davos 2026: Special address by Mark Carney, Prime Minister of Canada,” Jan. 20, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.weforum.org/stories/2026/01/davos-2026-special-address-by-mark-carney-prime-minister-of-canada/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[61] Arctic Portal, “Greenlanders have voted – major changes ahead?,” Mar. 12, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://arcticportal.org/ap-library/news/3707-greenlanders-have-voted-major-changes-ahead. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[62] J. Curtis and S. Fella, “President Trump and Greenland: Frequently Asked Questions,” House of Commons Library Research Briefing CBP-10472, Jan. 23, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-10472/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[63] T. Paternoster and J. Liboreiro, “Most Greenlanders oppose joining US despite Trump’s push, poll shows,” Euronews, Jan. 29, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.euronews.com/2025/01/29/most-greenlanders-oppose-joining-us-despite-trumps-push-poll-shows. [Accessed: Apr. 30, 2026].
[64] European External Action Service, “The EU in the Arctic: The EU’s Arctic Policy.” [Online]. Available: https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/eu-arctic_en. [Accessed: Mar. 2, 2026].
[65] European Commission, Multiannual Indicative Programme 2021–2027 for Greenland, Mar. 8, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/document/download/5f56a51b-7c23-4ba3-89b8-c14bf535c789_en?filename=mip-2021-c2021-9159-greenland-annex_en.pdf. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[66] Government Offices of Sweden, “Statement by Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom,” Jan. 18, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.government.se/statements/2026/01/statement-by-denmark-finland-france-germany-the-netherlands-norway-sweden-and-the-united-kingdom/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[67] European Council, “Joint statement by President Costa and by President von der Leyen on Greenland,” Jan. 17, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2026/01/17/joint-statement-by-president-costa-and-by-president-von-der-leyen-on-greenland/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[68] S. Starcevic and C. Gijs, “Von der Leyen vows ‘unflinching’ response to Trump with EU-US relations in turmoil,” Politico, Jan. 20, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-faces-permanent-new-world-order-greenland-ursula-von-der-leyen-says/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[69] European Commission, “Protecting against coercion: The Anti-Coercion Instrument for protecting the EU and its Member States from third countries’ economic coercion,” Dec. 27, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/enforcement-and-protection/protecting-against-coercion_en. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[70] European Council, “Informal meeting of the members of the European Council, 22 January 2026.” [Online]. Available: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/european-council/2026/01/22/. [Accessed: Feb. 9, 2026].
[71] K. Robinson, Out of Our Minds: Learning to Be Creative, 2nd ed. Chichester, U.K.: Capstone Ltd., 2011.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Daniel Berchev, Monika Panayotova
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
